Ancient Egypt History

Katz Theory of Management - 1690 Words

Critically evaluate the relevance of the three skills identified by Katz to the work of first-line managers. Provide evidence, theoretical analysis and refer to academic journals to support your essay discussion. In a constantly evolving business environment, it’s no surprise that the job of a first line manager has changed. As such this essay will be covering 3 main aspects. Firstly, it will identify the work of the first line manager followed by Katz’s 3 skills and their relevance and lastly, whether other skills are applicable to the work of the first line managers. Managers are defined as people who coordinate and oversee the work of other people so that organisational goals can be accomplished (Robbins, Bergman, Stagg and Coulter,†¦show more content†¦He must be able to communicate with the employees to make them feel like an integral part of the organisation where their opinions and views matter. Katz (1974) does this by encouraging workers to participate in the planning and carrying out of those things that directly affect them. By involving the employees, they would feel more motivated to work for the company and thus worker productivity increases, resulting in faster attainment of production goals. By being sensitive to the needs and motivations of the employees (Katz 1974), employees will not be afraid to voice their opinions and problems they face to them. By ensuring that there is a good relationship that is maintained between him and his workers, feedbacks can be gathered from either side, contributing to a better working envi ronment and hence, more efficiency and productivity. For instance, employee’s opinions regarding to work-related issues can be brought up to the supervisor with no hesitation. Like wise, first line managers can also respond via criticising product quality, progress of the work and yet instill work discipline among the employees. First line managers also act as the link between employees and the higher management, as (Kraut, Pedigo, McKenna Dunnettenn, 1989) state that they provide information on the work progress of the area of production to the higher level managers who depend on it. Middle managers need constant feedback on theShow MoreRelatedManagement Skills1662 Words   |  7 Pagesmanagerial skill and compares Katz theory of Managerial Skills with Minzberg theory of Managerial Roles. Chief executives officers (CEOs) are certainly responsible enough for their position in the firm. â€Å"Top managers are managers at or near the top level of the organisation who are responsible for making organisation-wide decisions and establishing the goals and plans that affect the entire organisation.† (Robbins, Bergman Stagg Coulter, 2009, p. 9). According to Mintzberg theory, there are 10 managerialRead MoreFayol s Five Functions Of Management1099 Words   |  5 PagesWe may define management as â€Å"a process that involves planning, organizing leading (or deploying), and controlling resources in order to achieve goals† [Martin, J, 2010, pg12]. A manager must exercise influence over others using extrinsic motivation to optimise an organisations performance. There is little consensus about the term management, with many management theories outlining what is required of a manager. Theorist, Mintzberg, purposed the most suitable theory for an engineering discipline.Read MoreContingency Theories in Management1657 Words   |  7 Pageswhere the four popular ma nagement contingency variables of organisational size, routineness of task technology, environmental uncertainty and individual differences are reflected in the work of the manager that was interviewed. Using classical theories of Fayol, Mintzberg and Katz along practical examples from the managers’ day-to-day routine, this essay sets out to explain how these theories and functions impact upon how the manager applies the situational approach to management using the contemporaryRead MoreSkills And Style Survey : Walden University1178 Words   |  5 Pages Wk2AssgnJLayman: Skills and Style Survey Walden University Ph.D. Public Policy and Administration â€Æ' Introduction This is an introduction to the Skills Inventory introduced in Chapter 3 of the textbook â€Å"Leadership: Theory and Practice† by Peter Northouse, a tool by which one can measure leadership strengths in three major skill areas, Technical, Human Conceptual (Northouse, 2016). An additional introduction is made to the Leadership Behavior Questionnaire, which measures the type ofRead MoreManaging People and Organizations1585 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to Katz’s theory managers require three of this following skills to be successful at their job, conceptual, interpersonal and technical (Robbins, Bergman, Stagg Coulter, 2008). Katz also believed that the top management would require more conceptual skills then the rest and the middle management would require more interpersonal skill then the rest followed by the low management that requires technical skill the most. In this essay I would be looking into how Katz theory works and shows thatRead MoreOrganizational Ass umptions in Management: Critical Review1590 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Critical Review I. Katz (1975) The work of Katz (1975) reports that it is known that a critical challenge in the United States is the selection and training of good administrators however little exists in the way of agreement about what it precisely is that makes a good administrator. The cause of the difference in opinions on this subject is stated to be industrys search for the traits or attributes which will objectively identify the ideal executive who is equipped to cope effectivelyRead MoreKatz Mintzberg1634 Words   |  7 Pagesthe work of modern day management still comparable to the ideas, and structures created by management theorists of the past? Management functions, roles, and skills, have been labelled as the three distinctive categories to aid the job description of managers (Robbins, Bergman, Stagg Coulter, 2006). The purpose of this essay is to identify the work that is required from a manager of today, and evaluate the comparisons with the characterisations created by past management researche rs, and theirRead MoreDot s Special Security Services1578 Words   |  7 Pageslack of special security management services as it pertains to background investigation requirements, cyber security, personal identification information protection, insider threat, and risk mitigation assessments for religious organizations, outreach programs, and businesses. Hampton Roads area is comprised with the cities of Hampton, Newport News, Portsmouth, Chesapeake, and Virginia Beach. DS3’s owner, Ms. Tenika R. Ortiz, has over 20 years of special security management experience and has workedRead MoreThe Relationship Between Executive Compensation And Firm Performance1399 Words   |  6 Pagesthe long-term incentives offered by firms today. To effectively understand compensation packages, it is critical to understand agency theory. Agency theory represents the differences in goals between management (agent) and the firm’s shareholders (principal). According to Murphy (1998), compensation plans are a solution to the goal incongruence between management and its shareholders and will be explained later in this paper. The purpose of this paper is to understand the relationship between certainRead MoreFirst Managers Needed Skils1242 Words   |  5 Pagesfind out the how the managers become more efficient, many researcher devoted themselves to develop theories on what exactly skills or abilities does managers need. In 1955, Robert L. Katz developed three essential managerial skills or competencies: technical, human and conceptual. He also believed that different levels of managers need different skills within the organization. More specially, Katz thought that top managers need conceptual skills, middle managers need human skills and first line managers

Are Literature Circle Effective Free Essays

Literature circles are mostly used during a classroom to expand the view of the book and really see the details in each others opinion, but are they effective? Multiple students find literature circles helpful in understanding the book and they all have their own job when it comes to coming together and discussing what they read. In a certain way literature circles are helpful when it comes to comprehending the book everyone in your group is reading. You also get to bond more with the other people in your group, increase your discussion skills and vocabulary as well. We will write a custom essay sample on Are Literature Circle Effective or any similar topic only for you Order Now Everyone in the group has their own opinion so when a question is asked about a certain paragraph or page, you can all discuss why you answered what you did. â€Å"Literature circles are effective for team building abilities, discussion skills, and reading comprehension†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Matt) Even though staying on task is one of the tricky parts of literature circles, they truly are helpful. Literature circles are a great way for students to read and enjoy a book, especially high school students because most teenagers now a days do not read as much as they should. It’s a wonderful tool as well, so they can learn to work effectively together. When your in your group you can have a discussion director, summarizer, vocabulary reporter, and a passage master. Discussion directors create questions about the passage they read and take notes during the discussion. Summarizers are the ones that summarize the passage. Vocabulary reporters look for significant words in the passage that caught their eyes and discuses them with the group. Passage master find passages in the reading that everyone should notice, remember, or think about. Everyone in a literature circle has a job so they can all work together and compare thoughts. This is an important tool when comprehending a book. Everyone has a way to contribute, and work together. Literature circles are very helpful when it comes to your reading, vocabulary, and discussion skills. You get to hear others opinion about the reading so you can understand how they felt. So sincerely literature circles are very effective. How to cite Are Literature Circle Effective, Essays

Self Analysis for the Job of Marketing Manager †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Self Analysis for the Job of Marketing Manager. Answer: Introduction Personal brand is important because it provides a definite focus for the development of personal requirements. The main focus of personal branding is to increase the personal development. It allows individuals to pursue whatever it is that theyre passionate about. The relationship between personal branding and career success is considered as the unique dynamic. This report will reflect the various elements that help to build effective personal branding. It is important for creating personal brand to have the vision statement (Vallas Cummins, 2015). There is need to include goals, core values, success and offerings in career development. Description of the future job ofmarketing manager will be analyzed in this report. Self analysis and social networking profile will be described in clear way so that report can be important for further studies. Description of future job (Marketing manager) A marketing manager manages the products and business of the marketing. The nature of leader should be impartial and gregarious. The role of marketing manager is to manage the marketing activities appropriately. Marketing manager is responsible for managing the market, advertise the products and services and for promotional staff. It is the duty of marketing manager to take steps further perfectly so that staff gets beneficiated. Personal brand is a way to know yourself and your competitors (Malr, Krohmer, Hoyer, Nyffenegger, 2011). Development of personal brand helps to recognize and communicate what makes someone unique and different from others. Marketing manager should be highly focused so that employees accomplish the task within time frame. It is the duty of the marketing manager to analyze the demands so that it can be fulfilled within time frame (Nolan, 2015). Technology has been changed so it is necessary for the manager to know about the demand of customers. Manufacturer o f the company should have the knowledge about the current trend of market so that products can be produced appropriately (Hood, Robles, Hopkins, 2014). The performance of the marketing manager is done in the research of complex product, involving knowledge of the positive or negative impact of products, prior to introducing the product to non-traditional marketplaces. Marketing manager can travel from one place to another for the purpose of meeting the clients regarding the clients services and products. Moreover, marketing manager travels for the purpose of meeting with prospective media outlets which is including print production companies and video production companies (Khedher, 2014). For the marketing, manager personal brand has some concept such as No-limits marketing, nature of innovative and leverage, traditional and social marketing that makes solutions through managing the solution to the mission, strategy, industry and product of the company (Lair, Sullivan Cheney, 2005) Self-analysis Self assessment is necessary but it is not succeeded every time due to lack of self awareness. The main purpose of self assessment is to know the qualities for the further development. To attain the position of marketing manager, I should analyze the current development. Communication is an important element to perform the job role of marketing manager. In this regard, my skills of self awareness and self esteem help me to make communication with others so that people can understand things ad concept easily. Self analysis facilitates to know the positive traits along with negatives. There are so many responsibility and duties of marketing manager. If I get an opportunity to be a marketing manager, I will focus on my career appropriately. I will follow the rules and responsibility of the company and will become the role model of my followers. My main Moto would be to enhance the productivity of the employees by showing them advantage of working in different style. I will analyze the markets and the trends of products and their consumptions so that the every department of the organization get know about the demand of the customers. It is necessary to run with the world to know the like and dislikes of the customers. I will hire the qualified and experienced employees so thatthe sale of the company can increase. The total turnover of the company is depending upon the performance of the employee so it is important for the company to hire the efficient employees. Establishment of marketing goals is necessary for the progress of the company therefore as a marketing ma nager I will forecast the market. As a marketing manager, I will take care of those things which can influence to my duties. It is my responsibility to research and analyze the trend of market, pricing schedule, demographics, and products of competitors important information which is related to the marketing strategies. As a marketing manager, I will work with marketing staff to enhance the marketing plan for all sales team. It would be my responsibility as a marketing manager to communicate with media buyers, printers, agencies of advertising and other services which is helpful for marketing projects that come to fruition (Malr, et. al., 2011). I analyzed the target development during focusing on my current development. I have come to know because of self assessment that there are some drawbacks in my life in which I have to consider that is organizational and leadership skill. It is necessary to learn from my daily life to handle the situation calmly and patiently because this will help me out to become an effective leader. The latter is important for me because it is important for the profile of marketing manager to have the quality of leadership. Marketing manager has to handle number of employees and he should be clear in front of their followers so that the aim and the objectives of the company can convey in a better way (Labrecque, Markos, Milne, 2011). Social Networking Profile Social network has become wider day by day and most of employees approach social media for the purpose to find the job. Social network is referred as a relationship network. There are so many social media platforms exist which can help to find the job not only in certain area but also in all over the world. It can be LinkedIn, Facebook, twitter and Jora. To publish the profile of marketing manager, LinkedIn and Jora are best that have the collection of professionals. In those sites unnecessary information and images do not share. Relevant information can be found in these both sites. Most of the job seekers post their profile on these sites because it is well known sites that facilitate employee to find a suitable job. It gives option not only in particular industry but also in different industry and cities (Roberts Roach, 2009). LinkedIn is a social network which is more professional. It is the site in which job giver and job seeker are presentable. It contains the entire information about the company and the profile. It is a network that aims to connect with the people online (McCorkle Payan, 2017). It is the site that helps to make aware about brand, lead generation, customer services and many more. To find a new job and opportunity LinkedIn is a job search engine that helps to find out the most suitable job and provide the chance to compare among companies at one place (Hood, et. al., 2014). Jora is a search engine which helps out to find the job. It is the job search engine which currently available in 22 countries. The main focus of Jora is to provide jobs so that job seekers can find out suitable jobs as their demands. In comparison of other social networking site, Jora is considered as the most suitable place for posting the job profile (Carroll, 2013). It is the platform in which the job seeker and job giver are exists. The main benefit of this site is that the design of this site is very simple and easy to navigate. It is the site that has not any kind of frill or extras to the site, just the search engine and result (Ressia, Strachan, Bailey, 2017) Conclusion It has been concluded that the personal branding is important because it helps to know the personal development. Self assessment is a tool that evaluates the strength and weakness of particular person for the purpose to develop the skills. In this report the job of marketing manager has been discussed which would be helpful to the entire profile of marketing manager. After that self assessment of an individual for the job of marketing manager has been elaborated in which the capability and disability has been mentioned. Social media plays a vital role in todays world. Four social sites has been chosen for publishing the job description of marketing manager in which two sites LinkedIn and Job rapid has been decided to upload the job description. References Carroll, D. (2013). A Panel Data Investigation of the Relationship between Graduate Job Search and Employment Outcomes. Journal of Institutional Research, 18(1), 47-55. Hood, K. M., Robles, M., Hopkins, C. D. (2014). Personal branding and social media for students in today's competitive job market.The Journal of Research in Business Education,56(2), 33. Khedher, M. (2014).Personal branding phenomenon.International journal of information, business and management, 6(2), 29. Labrecque, L. I., Markos, E., Milne, G. R. (2011). Online personal branding: processes, challenges, and implications. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 25(1), 37-50. Lair, D. J., Sullivan, K., Cheney, G. (2005). Marketization and the recasting of the professional self: The rhetoric and ethics of personal branding. Management Communication Quarterly, 18(3), 307-343. Malr, L., Krohmer, H., Hoyer, W. D., Nyffenegger, B. (2011). Emotional brand attachment and brand personality: The relative importance of the actual and the ideal self. Journal of Marketing, 75(4), 35-52. McCorkle, D., Payan, J. (2017). Using Twitter in the Marketing and Advertising Classroom to Develop Skills for Social Media Marketing and Personal Branding. Journal of Advertising Education, 21(1), 33. Nolan, L. (2015). The impact of executive personal branding on non-profit perception and communications. Public Relations Review, 41(2), 288-292. Ressia, S., Strachan, G., Bailey, J. (2017).Operationalizing Intersectionality: an Approach to Uncovering the Complexity of the Migrant Job Search in Australia.Gender, Work Organization,24(4), 376-397. Roberts, S. J., Roach, T. (2009). Social networking web sites and human resource personnel: Suggestions for job searches. Business Communication Quarterly, 72(1), 110-114. Vallas, S. P., Cummins, E. R. (2015). Personal branding and identity norms in the popular business press: Enterprise culture in an age of precarity. Organization Studies, 36(3), 293-319.

Structure, culture and teamworking

THE MODERNIST ART OF FICTION Essays - Literature, Arts, Free Essays

THE MODERNIST ART OF FICTION Essays - Literature, Arts, Free Essays THE MODERNIST ART OF FICTION One possible way of approaching modernism is to place it within a larger cultural framework, by establishing its position to other '-isms' emerging at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. This is what we tried to do in the previous chapter, by having a look at the obvious interrelations between various trends whose main characteristics are the innovation in form and the modification of the worldview. Another approach, which we consider equally profitable and rewarding, is to profit from the theoretical and analytical effort of the modernist novelists themselves, whose essays may fully document our interpretation of the modernist work. If the former approach essentially encourages a view of modernism within a cultural context, the latter provides the interpreter of modernism with a highly nuanced view from inside modernism. Given these two possibilities, this chapter will focus on the critical contribution of some turn-of-the-century and twentieth-century novelists, which is expected to cast proper light upon the artistic intentions and the creative mechanisms involved by the modern novel as it distinguishes itself from the nineteenth-century novelistic conventions. For grounding our decision to devote a whole chapter to an 'inside' approach to modernism, we shall start from a statement Woolf made in her essay 'The New Crusade'. We specifically value it as it has given us, in a way, the indication one sometimes needs as to what pathway to follow for an appropriate analysis of a literary phenomenon which, even if turned into a canon by now, is still prone to controversy. [...] of all the makers poets are apt to be the least communicative about their processes, and, perhaps, owing in part to the ordinary nature of their material, have little or nothing that they choose to discuss with outsiders. The best way of surprising their secrets is very often to read their criticism.[1] The students of modernism may maliciously find in this statement the confirmation of their fear of modernism, as well as a comfortable explanation for their being reluctant to come to grips with such difficult pieces of writing as the modernists' novels. Why should one take the trouble of reading such novels, if the modernists themselves are unwilling to communicate? Why should one make an effort to sympathise with the creating artist, if it is only an elite, if at all, that the modernist addresses? Why should one try to identify the meaning of a world made of such intricately woven ordinary words, if one is not even allowed to aspire to the position of an insider? Just like any instance of literary language, Woolf's words have a certain degree of ambiguity, which could, no doubt, encourage hypothetical questions like those we have formulated above. Yet, these same words may generate a totally new perspective on modernism, according to which reader and writer are part of the same creative act and contract, according to which the reader is cherished and praised as an invaluable contributor to meaning creation. It is no longer fear that one should feel when confronted with the modernist writer and his experiment, but pride and satisfaction that one has been drawn into the process of creation and consequently made into the creator's peer. There are several key terms in the above quotation whose disambiguation and proper understanding are likely to give us the key of access to the meaning of modernist fiction. 'Maker' represents, in ordinary speech, 'one that makes', meaning which is far too general, and therefore vague, for Woolf to have chosen it in her discussion of literature, unless she assigned to it a sense that would fruitfully fit in her argument. As a synonym of 'creator' and 'author', 'maker' is the one who brings something new into being or existence. "Written with an initial capital letter all three terms designate God or the Supreme Being; without the capital they ascribe comparable but not equivalent effects and powers to a person. 'Maker' is likely to imply a close and immediate relationship between the one who makes and the thing that is made and an ensuing responsibility or concern for what is turned out.[...] In many of its human applications (as in king maker, a maker of men, a maker of phrases) maker suggests the use of appropriate material as an instrument through which one gives form to one's ideas."[2] The noun 'poet', which at first sight may pass unnoticed because of the vulgar sense associated to it, i.e. 'one who writes poetry, a maker of verses', acquires in Woolf's

Research Report on Major Coffee Houses in the United Kingdom Paper

Report on Major Coffee Houses in the United Kingdom - Research Paper Example Major players such as Starbuck have started opening outlets at every nook and corner of the country to gain popularity and pose threats to its competitors. The competition has become so deadly with more and more entrants joined the market and started their innovative style in product and service. However, recent research findings show that "after a prolonged period of consistent year-on-year growth, much of the coffee shops market is now entering a phase of consolidation, as consumers and operators alike hunker down in reaction to the current economic recession" (Coffee Shops - Current and new strategies for success). Moreover, the trend in the market has also changed from conventional outlet to pubs and fast food especially among youth. At this juncture, this research paper explores the status of the coffee industry in the United Kingdom by means of a variety of methods such as PESTLE Analysis. The study covers the PESTLE analysis of four major players in the coffee industry of the country. The coffee houses selected for the present study are Starbucks, Caffe Nero, Costa Coffee, and Coffee Republic. The study begins with the preparation of a perceptual positioning map and its relevance. The study covers those coffee shops where coffee is a major item of sales and majority of the consumers visit the shops to consume branded coffee because of their loyalty to the brands. The research is not confined to a particular type of coffee. Instead, it includes different types of coffee products such as cappuccino, latte, mocha. For the purpose of the research coffee shops include venues such as individual stores, kiosks and concessions. It is also to be noticed that the research does not cover other coffee establishments such as in-, tea shops, store cafes or traditional cafes, restaurants, and sandwich shops. The study takes a sample survey among 30 coffee consumers of various brands. It seeks to explore that how the consumers of various coffee products rate their brand s and what motivate them to buy their brands. A Brief Account of the Profile of Selected Companies Starbucks Established in the year 1980 by Howard Schultz, Starbucks is a large coffee retailer conglomerate having around 11000 cafes spread across 40 countries around the globe. The main reason for the company's success has been its focus on quality and highest beverage processing standards including selection of the best coffee ingredients. The raw materials that go into making the coffee are extracted from the best Arabica coffee beans and there are no mixtures or additives.

Theme of The Lion King Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Theme of The Lion King - Essay Example The movie opens with the sunrise and the song, "Circle of Life." This song is significant because it implies that everyone and everything is part of the circle. As the sun rises, the audience witnesses a new birth of a lion cub. The song and the sunrise symbolize new birth and we understand that this new cub is not an ordinary cub, but he is the son of the king. The audience also witnesses a naming ceremony for the young cub as he is presented to the rest of the pride and brought into the circle of life. This ritual is showing the audience a very old African ritual. The cub is named Simba and it is very clear that his destiny is to become the next king. Each person in his pride has a job and a certain place in the circle. Simba will also join the circle in his rightful place but he has to be taught what he must do as a king. Simba's story is like many other ones where a young boy is reluctant to take responsibility for his life. In this case, although Simba is being primed for his job by his father Mufasa and Zazu a hornbill who is attempting to make Simba mind him, he would rather be off playing with his friends. After all, in his mind when he gets to be king, he can do anything he wants because he is the ruler. The song, "I JustCan't Wait to Be King" is a perfect example of a small child's dream about what he will do when he is king. At this point in his life, Simba really just wants to explore his childhood. He has no reason to be a king at this point and it is essential to him to just fool around.

YOUR LEADERSHIP PHILOSOPHY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

YOUR LEADERSHIP PHILOSOPHY - Essay Example For a leader, it is vital to expose the employees in other areas of concern outside the office. Research analysts argue that getting out of the office is one of the ways in which the employees’ morale can be boosted. This makes the workers more enthusiastic in their jobs, and more engaged in their day to day tasks (Posner & Kouzes, 2010). For instance, outside the field, it is vital that the sailors are given a chance to work outside the office and interact with the public. However, this is only possible if the manager gives them an opportunity to show responsibility and liability in their jobs. This will minimize the chances of misconduct, since the sailors are held accountable for their actions. For a leader, interaction with the juniors is vital if the business is to thrive. This may entail joking with the juniors, an aspect that not only builds rapport between the employer and the employees but also creates a positive bond between the two parties. From the case study, it is evident that there is a huge problem in terms of command and responsibility in the Navy system. The officers are known to be of no good caliber, always in the wrong due to breach of rules. If the juniors and seniors had a chance to interact, It would be possible to have a bond forming between the parties, and, ultimately, minimizing the pressures of the job. Thirdly, both the professional and personal goals of a leader have to be balanced if their team is to succeed. In our case, the leader may adopt the system of having personal time with a different sailor on a daily basis. This would allow for the leader to understand the problems of his or her subordinates on a first hand basis. For instance, this would aid in uncovering the reasons behind the commanding officers breaking the Navy ethos and justification of their actions at any event. Probably, such employees need some attention and constant praise for the job that they do.

Dss Analysis And Decision Support System Information Technology Essay

Dss Analysis And Decision Support System Information Technology Essay Abstract During our study and research on DSS we came to mutual agreement that DSS is an ever evolving domain. Lot of research has been carried out on the usage of DSS in many different domains especially in Clinic. But we found that research on the DSS System as a whole (regardless of which domain) has not been conducted many times in the past. Based on the initial study we have identified the following problems 1. There is no universally accepted definition for DSS, 2. There have been a many reports of failure of DSS systems. In the research paper below we have tried to define DSS system based on the Characteristics and the Targeted users. Paper also covers the decision making process, the decision analysis cycle, Framework of DSS which form the base of the DSS. We have also made an attempt to formulate the Critical success factors of the DSS and Reasons for the failure of DSS. We have tried to collect most of our data through secondary research which involves collating of data from existing research documents and books.   In 1960 J. C. R. Licklider wrote a paper on his observation of how the interaction between man and computer can improve the quality and competency in recognizing and problem solving. His paper proved to be like a guide to many future researches on DSS. In 1962 with use of hypertext online system helped in storage and retrieval of documents and creation of digital libraries. SAGE (Semi Automatic Ground Environment) built by Forrester is probably the first data driven computerized DSS. In 1964 Scott Morton built up an interactive model driven management decision system which could help managers make important management decisions. In 1970 John D.C. Little noted that the requirement for designing models and system to make a management decision was completeness to data, simplicity, ease of control and robustness, which till date are relevant in improving and evaluating modern DSS. By 1975, he built up a DSS called Brandaid which could support promotion, advertising, pricing and product r elated decisions. In 1974 the focus was on giving managers with information which was from accounting and transaction processing system with use if MIS(Management Information Systems) but MIS was found to not helping out managers with making key decisions. Hence in 1979 Scott Morton and Gorry argued that MIS just primarily focused on structured decisions and hence the system which also supports unstructured and semi-structured decision should be termed as Decision support systems. Gorry and Scott Morton coined the phrase DSS in 1971, about ten years after MIS became popular. (David Arnott, An Analysis of Decision Support Systems Research, p.1) Decision support system now-a-days are critical for the daily operation and success of many organizations. Due to which there is a huge investment being made on development, customization, implementation and upgradation of these systems. Despite the rapid growth of information technology over the past decade, the success of Decision Support System remains questionable due to the lack of insufficient studies on the outcomes. As David Arnott and Gemma Dodson stated in Decision Support System Failure (David Arnott, Gemma Dodson, p.1) The development of a decision support system is a risky affair. The Volatile task environment and dynamic nature of managerial work means that DSS Projects are prone to Failure. As per David Arnott and Gemma Dodson definition above its very important to understand why organization take such a big risk and invest in a Decision support system. (Efraim Turban, Ramesh Sharda, Decision Support and Business Intelligence Systems, 8th Edition, p.12) Some of the factors why company use DSS Systems suggested by Efraim and Ramesh are: Speedy Computation Improved Communication and Collaboration Increase Productivity of group members Improved data management Managing Giant Data warehouses Quality Support Agility Support Overcoming cognitive limits in processing and storing information The paper here deals with the study of how decision analysis happens in DSS, Problems and there types, Why DSS are required or implemented by organization, Decision making process, Types of DSS, Reason for the failure of DSS, Critical success factor of DSS. Activities that require decision making form a set or a group of problems, varying from structured problem to unstructured problem. As Simon States The boundary between well structured and ill structured problems is vague, fluid and not susceptible to formalization.  (The structure of ill structured problems, 1973, Herbert A. Simon) the Decision making process, decision made and the style of making decision can be influenced by the personality of the individual and their cognitive style, and which is one of the major reasons for different decision aids being sought. (Management Information System 8/E Raymond McLeod, Jr. and George Schell) Decision types in terms of problem structure: Structured problems can be solved with algorithms and decision rules. A structured decision can be defined as one in which three components of a decision-the data, process, and evaluation. Structured decisions are made on a regular basis in business environments. If a rigid framework is placed for the decision making process it helps to solve the problem. Unstructured problems have no structure in Simons phases. These decisions have the same components as structured ones-data, process, and evaluation- but there nature is different. For example, decision maker use different set of data and process to reach a decision or goal. In addition, as the nature of the decision is different a few numbers of people within the organization are even qualified to evaluate the decision and to confirm one. Semi structured problems have structured and unstructured phases. Most of the DSS System is focused on Semi Structured decision. Characteristics of this type of decisions of this type are Having some agreement on the data, process, and/or evaluation to be used, Efforts to maintain a level of human-judgement in the decision making process. To determine which Support system is required it is necessary to analyze thoroughly and understand the limitations and ill effects, which the decision maker are manifested with. Apart from which it is also important to understand the objectives of the system. (Management Information System 8/E Raymond McLeod, Jr. and George Schell) Decision Support System Objectives: Efficiency of the system. Making decisions. To support managers, not to replace people. Used when the decision is semi structured or unstructured. Incorporate a database. Incorporate models. It is also important that like any other computer based system the DSS should be: Simple Robust Easy to Use Adaptive Easy to communicate with. Now that we have a brief idea about the type of problems that are faced by the managers and the qualities that the DSS system should pertain understanding the decision making process would give an insight to the how a decision is made. Decision Making: (Administrative Behavior, Herbert Simon, 1947) Herbert Simon in 1947 defines decision as the behavioral and cognitive processes of making rational human choices, that is, decisions. It states that any decision making is a behavioral and cognitive process of making choices from a set of options available. So, it is important for the DSS, to be accurate enough for making a choice from many different options available. To make accurate choices from the options available DSS takes help from constrains defined and the goals that it has to achieve. (Administrative Behavior, Herbert Simon, 1947) Simon states in his journal The human being striving for rationality and restricted within the limits of his knowledge has developed some working procedures that partially overcome these difficulties. These procedures consist in assuming that he can isolate from the rest of the world a closed system containing a limited number of variables and a limited range of consequences. By this Simon mean that people with limited knowledge about a particular task or domain will develop some technique that will help the person to overcome these difficulties. This in a sense defines the basic purpose of DSS system to make help managers with making decision. It is also important to understand the term isolated from the rest of the world, by this Simon meant that the decision should be purely be based on the goals to be obtained and based on the criteria defined it should not come under any other influence. He also formulated a model of decision making. (David Arnott, An Analysis of Decision Support Systems Research, p.1) Simons model of decision-making has been used in DSS research since the fields inception and was an integral component of Gorry and Scott Mortons seminal MIS/DSS framework. (Image Taken from Wikipedia, Figure 1) In Simon model of decision making (Figure 1) there are several phases through which an individual goes through to reach his objectives or goal. Phases of Decision Making as per Simon Model are as follows: Intelligence: Identify reality. Get problem/opportunity understanding. Obtain required information. Design: Make decision criteria. Make decision alternatives. Look for related unmanageable events. Identify the links between criteria, alternatives, and events. Choice: Logically assess the decision alternatives. Make recommended actions that best meet the decision criteria. Implementation: Consider the decision  analysis  and assessment. Evaluate the cost of the recommendations. Have confidence in the decision. Make an implementation plan. Secure required supplies. Set implementation plan into act. Based on the Decision making process by Simon and the problem structure described above we can define the accuracy of decisions can be measured by the following criteria: The methods or technique with which it achieves the desired results or goals; and The efficiency with which the goals and sub goals are obtained. By this we mean members of the organization may focus on the method and technique used to reach to the result or goal, but the administrative management must pay attention to the efficiency with which the desired result was obtained. To understand the efficiency of the decision made it is necessary to analysis the decision made. Decision Analysis in itself is a vast field and deals with many methodologies to measure the efficiency of the decision. Decision Analysis: (Ronald Howard, 1965, Decision Analysis: Applied Decision Theory)Decision Analysis is a discipline which was developed to deal with the challenges of making important decisions which involved handling major uncertainty, long-term targets and complex value issues. Decision Analysis comprises the philosophical, theoritical, methodological, and professional practice necessary to formalize the analysis of important decisions. (Ronald Howard, 1965, Decision Analysis: Applied Decision Theory) Decision analysis is a logical procedure for the balancing of the factors that influence a decision. The procedure incorporates uncertainties, values, and preferences in a basic structure that models the decision. Typically, it includes technical, marketing, competitive, and environmental factors. The essence of the procedure is the construction of a structural model of the decision in a form suitable for computation and manipulation; the realization of this model is often a set of computer programs. Decision-making consists of assigning values on the outcomes of interest to the decision-maker. Thus, decision analysis evaluates the decision-makers trade-offs between monetary and non-monetary outcomes and also establishes in quantitative terms his preferences for outcomes that are risky or distributed over time. Ronald A. Howard in his paper Advances: Foundations of DA Revisited goes on to discuss the Pillars of Decision Analysis The First Pillar: Systems Analysis Systems analysis grew out of World War II and was concerned with understanding dynamic systems. Key notions were those of state variables, feedback, stability, and sensitivity analysis. The field of systems engineering is currently in a state of resurgence. Decision analysis and systems engineering have many complementary features (Howard, 1965, 1973). The Second Pillar: Decision Theory Decision theory is concerned primarily with making decisions in the face of uncertainty. Its roots go back to Daniel Bernoulli (Bernoulli, 1738) and Laplace. Bernoulli introduced the idea of logarithmic utility to explain the puzzle called the St. Petersburg paradox. In the most influential book on probability ever written (Laplace, 1812), Laplace discusses the Esperance mathematique and the Esperance morale. Today we would call these the mean and the certain equivalent. The Third Pillar: Epistemic Probability Jaynes taught that there is no such thing as an objective probability: a probability reflects a persons knowledge (or equivalently ignorance) about some uncertain distinction. People think that probabilities can be found in data, but they cannot. Only a person can assign a probability, taking into account any data or other knowledge available. Since there is no such thing as an objective probability, using a term like subjective probability only creates confusion. Probabilities describing uncertainties have no need of adjectives. This understanding goes back to Cox (2001), Jeffreys (1939), Laplace (1996) and maybe Bayes, yet somehow it was an idea that had been lost over time. A famous scientist put it best over 150 years ago: The actual science of logic is conversant at present only with things either certain, impossible, or entirely doubtful, none of which (fortunately) we have to reason on. Therefore the true logic for this world is the calculus of Probabilities, which takes account of the magnitude of the probability which is, or ought to be, in a reasonable mans mind. (Maxwell, 1850) The Fourth Pillar: Cognitive Psychology In the 1960s few appreciated the important role that cognitive psychology would play in understanding human behaviour. At the time of DAADT, we just did our best to help experts assign probabilities. In the 1970s the work of Tversky, Kahneman, and others provided two valuable contributions. First, it showed that people making decisions relying only on their intuition were subject to many errors that they would recognize upon reflecting on what they had done. This emphasized the need for a formal procedure like decision analysis to assist in making important decisions. The second contribution was to show the necessity for those who are assisting in the probability and preference assessments to be aware of the many pitfalls that are characteristic of human thought. Tversky and Kahneman called these heuristics methods of thought that could be useful in general but could trick us in particular settings. We can think of these as the optical illusions of the mind. An important distinction here is that between descriptive and normative decision-making. Descriptive decision-making, as the name implies, is concerned with how people actually make decisions. The test of descriptive decision-making models is whether they actually describe human behaviour. Normative decision-making is decision-making according to certain rules, or norms, that we want to follow in our decision-making processes. The underlying premise of decision analysis is to distinguish between a good decision and a good outcome. A good decision is termed as logical decision which is based on the information, values, and preferences of the decision-maker. A good outcome is one that benefits the end user. The aim is to arrive at good decisions in all situations which would go on to ensure as high a percentage of good outcomes. But at times it may be observed that even a good decision has achieved a good outcome. But for majority of the situations we may face making good decisions is the best way to ensure good outcomes. A decision can be defined as a choice among alternatives that will yield uncertain futures, for which we have preferences. To explain the formal aspects of decision analysis the image of the three-legged stool shown in Figure 3.1 (Howard, 2000). The legs of the stool are the three elements of any decision: what you can do, the alternatives; what you know, the information you have; and what you want, your preferences. Collectively, the three legs represent the decision basis, the specification of the decision. Note that if any leg is missing, there is no decision to be made. If you have only one alternative, then you have no choice in what you do. If you do not have any information linking what you do to what will happen in the future, then all alternatives serve equally well because you do not see how your actions will have any effect. If you have no preferences regarding what will happen as a result of choosing any alternative, then you will be equally happy choosing any one. The seat of the stool is the logic that operates on the decision basis to produce the best alternative. We shall soon be constructing the seat to make sure that it operates correctly. Decision Analysis provides a formal language for communication for the people involved in the decision-making process. During this, the basis for a decision becomes clear, not just the decision itself. The views may differ on whether to adopt an alternative because individuals possess different relevant information or because they may value the consequences differentlly. Decision analysis Cycle: The professional practice of decision analysis is decision engineering. Creating a focused analysis requires the continual elimination of every factor that will not contribute to making the decision. This winnowing has been a feature of decision analysis since the beginning (Howard, 1968, 1970). Since DAADT, the process has been described as a decision analysis cycle, depicted in Figure 3.4 (Howard, 1984a). The application of decision analysis can be modeled in form of an iterative procedure called the Decision Analysis Cycle. Decision Analysis Cycle: The procedure is divided into three phases: Deterministic phase: the variables affecting the decision are defined and relations between the variables established, the values are assigned, and the importance of the variables is measured upto a acceptable level of certainity. Probabilistic phase: the associated probability assignments on values are derived. We also take into account the assessment of risk preference, which identifies the best possible solution in the face of uncertainty. Informational phase: the results of the first two phases are reviewed to determine the economic value of eliminating uncertainty in each of the important variables in the problem.It is the most important phase among the three because it evaluates in monetary terms to have the perfect information. Decision Support System: There is no universally accepted definition for the DSS system as of now. It is the major reason we have to rely on the Characteristics and Objectives of the DSS to understand the system. Below are a few famous definition for the DSS we would refer to formulate a definition for the system. (Decision Support Systems: An Organizational Perspective, Keen Scott-Morton, 1978) Keen and Scott define DSS as Decision support systems couple the intellectual resources of individuals with the capabilities of the computer to improve the quality of decisions. It is a computer-based support system for management decision makers who deal with semi structured problems. If we correlate the definition from Keen and Morton and Simons definition stating The human being striving for rationality and restricted within the limits of his knowledge has developed some working procedures that partially overcome these difficulties. These procedures consist in assuming that he can isolate from the rest of the world a closed system containing a limited number of variables and a limited range of consequences. We understand that the base of the DSS system is to support the manager. But one of the drawbacks of the definition from Keen and Morton is that they state that the system deals with only semi structured problems but the present DSS system also handles Unstructured and Structured issues. Peter Keen in 1980 defined DSS as Personal System to assist Manager must be built from the Managers perspective and must be based on a very detailed understanding of how the manager makes decision and how the manager organization functions. (Donald R. Moscato, 2004, p.1) In the above definition Peter Keen tries to define DSS in terms of the implementation and customization of DSS and states that it should be done based on Managers perspective, styles of decision making and the organizations function. Drawback with this definition is that it defines DSS as a personnel system and with the introduction of Group DSS and Communication DSS the definition becomes obsolete. Bonczek, Holsapple and Whinston (Foundations of Decision Support Systems, Bonczek, Holsapple and Whinston, 1981, p.19) argued the system must possess an interactive query facility, with a query language that is easy to learn and use. The above definition tries to explain that DSS systems should be interactive and should have a language of its own so that constrains of the decision and the goals can be addressed to the system and is easy to understand and use. (We have stated in the section objectives of DSS). (Daniel J Power, 2001, p.1)Sprague and Carlson (1982) define Decision Support Systems broadly as interactive computer based systems that help decision-makers use data and models to solve ill-structured, unstructured or semi-structured problems. Sparague and Carlson explained the DSS system as an interactive system and which can help managers solve ill-structured, unstructured and semi-structured problem. If you observe the definition is a co-relation of definition provided by Peter Keen, Keen Scott-Morton 1978 and Bonczek, Holsapple and Whinston-1981 by removing there drawbacks. A few more definition that we thought explains DSS are as follows: Marakas in 2002 (Marakas, 2002, p.4) stated the following is a formal definition of DSS: A decision support system is a system under the control of one or more decision makers that assists in the activity of decision making by providing an organized set of tools intended to impose structure on portions of the decision-making situation and to improve the ultimate effectiveness of the decision outcome. Importance of Marakas definition is that it takes into consideration the tools that a manager can use to work with DSS system (can term it as third party tools in some cases) other that the query language or the normal interactive screen of the DSS. From the above example it is pretty clear that to define a DSS not only we will have to study the characteristics and the tools, types of DSS but also the framework of the DSS to select a definition or to define one. (Ralph H. Sprague, Hugh J. Watson, Decision Support System Putting Theory into practice, 3rd edition, 1993, p.4) Characteristics of DSS: They tend to be aimed at the less well structured, underspecified problems that upper level managers typically face. They attempt to combine the use of models or analytic techniques with traditional data access and retrieval function They specifically focus on features which make them easy to use by non-computer people in an interactive mode They emphasize flexibility and adaptability to accommodate changes in the environment and the decision making approach of the user. Framework of DSS: From (Daniel J Powers, 2001, p.1) we come to know that the framework for the Decision support system should be based on the following factors: (by this Daniel J Power meant System should be discussed and explained in terms of four descriptors to maintain better communication:) Dominant Technological Component The Targeted Users Purpose Deployment Technology (Daniel J Powers, 2001, p.1) And the Five generic categories of DSS are: Communication Driven Data Driven Document Driven Knowledge Driven Model Driven decision support system. (Daniel J Powers, 2001, p.1) DSS Deployment technology can be: Mainframe Computers A client server LAN Web Based Architecture Marakas (2002) meant that it is important to understand the type of DSS to determine the best design and approach of a new DSS. In 1976 Steven Alter, a doctoral student created a taxonomy of seven DSS types on Gorry and Scott-Morton framework based on a study of 56 DSSs. In 1980, Steven Alter (Daniel J Power, 2001, p.2) proposed his taxonomy of Decision Support Systems. Alters seven category typology is still relevant for discussing some types of DSS, but not for all DSS. Alters idea was that a Decision Support System could be categorized in terms of the generic operations it performs, independent of type of problem, functional area or decision perspective. His seven types included: File Drawer Systems Data Analysis Systems Analysis Information Systems Accounting and Financial models Representational Models Optimization Models Suggestion Models. Alters first three types of DSS have been called data oriented or data driven; the second three types have been called model oriented or model driven; and Alters suggestion DSS type has been called intelligent or knowledge driven DSS. Importance of Alters Study was: Supports concept of Developing Systems that address particular decisions. Makes clear that DSS need not be restricted to a particular Application Type. Based on Alters study Daniel J Power formulated an expanded framework. The purpose of expanded DSS framework is to help people understand and apply the framework to integrate, evaluate, implement and select appropriate means for supporting and informing decision-makers. Expanded Framework suggested by Daniel J Power (Daniel J Power, Expanded DSS framework, June 2001, p.5) Dominant DSS Component Target Users: Internal / External Purpose: General /Specific Deployment Technology Communications Communications- Driven DSS Internal teams, now expanding to external partners Conduct a meeting or Help users collaborate Web or Client/ Server Database Data-Driven DSS Managers, staff, now Suppliers Query a Data Warehouse Main Frame, Client/ Server, Web Document base Document-Driven DSS Internal users, but the user group is expanding Search Web pages or Find documents Web or Client/ Server Knowledge base Knowledge- Driven DSS Internal users, now Customers Management Advice or Choose products Client/Server, Web, Stand-alone PC Models Model-Driven DSS Managers and staff, now customers Crew Scheduling or Decision Analysis Stand-alone PC or Client/Server or Web (Ralph H. Sprague, Hugh J. Watson, Decision Support System Putting Theory into practice, 3rd edition, 1993, p.4) Three Technology Levels: Specific DSS System which actually accomplishes the work might be called the specific DSS. DSS Generator This is a set of related hardware and software which provides a set of capabilities to quickly and easily build a specific DSS. DSS Tool These are hardware or software elements which facilitates the development of a specific DSS or DSS Generator. Based on the details above we would like to define DSS as DSS can be defined as use of computer application that can help managers, staff members, or people who interact within the organization to make decisions and identify problems by using available data and communication technology. It is also very important to understand the reason for the failure of DSS. And what are the factors that could cause the failure of system and which factors are to be termed as the success factors of DSS. Reason for Failure of DSS System: Despite the benefits that DSS offers the implementation of such system has been limited. Some of the reasons can be the following: Proper evaluation of the DSS preceding and during DSS development. DSS output does not fit the producers decision-making style. Complexity involved while operating the DSS. Post Implementation support. Benefits from these systems are not always realized Other than the above reason few disadvantages of the DSS system are: Over dependency for Decision making Assuming it to be correct. Unanticipated effects Deflect personal responsibilities Information overload. Considering the above reason, to increase the rate of success of DSS implementation and customization, the following factors should be considered and managed. Critical Success Factors of DSS: Hartono (Hartono et al, 2006, p.257) uses the following words to describe their interpretation of Critical Success Factors: Success antecedents are those key factors that organizations can manage so that the management information system is favorably received and the implementation is deemed as successful (Johannes Johansson; Bjorn Gustafson, Critical Success Factors affecting Decision Support System Success, from an end-user perspective,2009, p.1)Johannes Johansson and Bjorn Gustafson identified three factors that significantly affect end-users perceived net benefits, namely Data Quality, Problem Match and Support Quality. (S. Newman1, T. Lynch, and A. A. Plummer; Success and failure of decision support systems: Learning as we go, p.1)The case study HotCross, a DSS under development to evaluate crossbreeding systems in northern Australia, provided evidence of a shift in the development process because greater emphasis was put on the learning process of breeding program design by end-users rather than emphasis on learning how to use the DSS itself. Greater end user involvement through participatory learning approaches (action learning, action research, and soft systems methodologies), iterative prototyping (evolving development processes), as well as keeping DSS development manageable and small in scope, will provide avenues for impr

Jazz historiography Essay -- American Culture, Music

The rapid development of jazz in both the United States and Europe generated a number of diverse musical expressions, including musics that most listeners today would not recognize as â€Å"jazz† music. In order to remedy this situation, jazz musicians and critics after 1930 began to codify what â€Å"real† jazz encompassed, and more importantly, what â€Å"real† jazz did not encompass. This construction of authenticity, often demarcated along racial lines, served to relegate several artists and styles (those outside a â€Å"mainstream† to the margins of historiography. The issue of race is central to all discourses of jazz. Alongside race goes the problem of representation, or, who gets to play what for whom and under what circumstance. Problems of representation abound from the beginning of jazz history, usually centered on white representation of black music and culture from a negative vantage point. Iconic examples of this phenomenon include the 1917 release of Livery Stable Blues by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band and Paul Whiteman‘s 1924 Aeolian Hall concert. The ODJB‘s recording was the first jazz record and the first representation of jazz to the majority of Americans, both black and white. Whiteman’s concert was invested in representing jazz to white Americans, showing how it had progressed from its primitive black beginnings to a more sophisticated style rooted in the fundamentals of European practice. Indeed, ideas of creation and control in jazz have usually been drawn along racial lines: black as creator, white as curator. In this mode of racial understanding in jazz, white jazz fans and musicians supposedly lack an essential â€Å"something† that makes them unable to innovate in jazz. Conversely, black musicians, while highly c... ... of which modern jazz big band dance music (for example, the Fletcher Henderson, Duke Ellington and Count Basie Orchestras), bebop, and later Free Jazz- emerged. Modern jazz, and particularly bebop, because of its hybrid nature has presented cultural critics, and especially critics of music, with a set of unresolvable issues. The music itself embodies contradiction. It can accurately be called both popular and high culture; it has an oral, vernacular lineage and one related to more innovative compositional techniques; it is Afro-American and European, romantic and revolutionary; and it has both escapist (ie, Sun Ra and late-era John Coltrane) and resistant (ie. Archie Shepp, Ornette Coleman) tendencies. As a result, jazz has become one of the most highly discusses and debated modern musical forms with controversial discourse surrounding its development.